The Ascendancy and Decline of Charles XII

Charles XII, born in 1682, became king at just 15 years old in 1697. His reign was soon challenged when Denmark-Norway, Poland-Lithuania, and Russia united against Sweden, exploiting the young ruler's inexperience. This conflict initiated the Great Northern War.

Despite facing overwhelming odds, Charles achieved several early victories, most notably against Russia at the Battle of Narva in 1700. His military strategy garnered him a formidable reputation, though it also led to devastating losses for Sweden.

With most adversaries subdued, Charles sought to decisively defeat Russia by marching on Moscow. However, after suffering a catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Poltava in 1709, he fled to the Ottoman Empire for five years before returning to Sweden in 1714, determined to continue the war.

In 1718, following an unsuccessful campaign, he laid siege to Fredriksten in Norway. On the night of November 30, while inspecting the trenches, he was struck by a projectile, leading to his immediate death. This event marked the end of his military endeavors and Sweden's era of great power.

The nature of his death has been cloaked in mystery for centuries. While accounts suggest he was hit by a bullet, the specifics—such as the projectile's origin—remain uncertain. Some theories propose it was fired from the fortress, while others speculate it could have been an assassination from within his ranks.

Early Theories and Autopsies

The details surrounding Charles XII's death remain largely obscure. Despite the presence of many witnesses, no one could attest to the moment he was struck. Numerous investigations into the battlefield and examinations of his skull have yielded inconclusive results.

Two primary theories have emerged regarding his death: one suggests he was shot by a Dano-Norwegian soldier, while the other posits that he was the target of a conspiracy orchestrated by his own men.

The initial autopsy, conducted by his surgeon Melchior Neumann shortly after his death, noted the head wound but failed to identify the projectile's source. Subsequent autopsies in 1746, 1859, and 1917 provided further insights, though no definitive conclusions were reached.

The 1859 examination suggested the wound could have resulted from a bullet fired from the Norwegian fortress. The 1917 autopsy, employing radiological imaging, indicated the projectile was made of a harder metal than lead.

These investigations lent credence to the idea that Charles was killed by enemy fire, but they also sparked alternative theories. Some suggested he may have been assassinated by a Swedish soldier, with suspects ranging from disgruntled troops to conspirators within his inner circle.

One notable theory by Finnish amateur historian Carl O. Nordling speculated that Charles' death was a politically motivated murder, allegedly orchestrated by a Swedish officer capable of disguising an assassination as a battlefield casualty.

Another intriguing hypothesis suggested that the projectile could have been a button from a musket, indicating an assassination plot. Despite the lack of compelling evidence for any assassination theories, historical interest in the political climate surrounding his death persists.

Modern Investigation and Findings

Recent advancements in forensic science have shed new light on the circumstances of Charles' death, particularly a 2022 study by Finnish researchers from the University of Oulu. This investigation employed ballistic testing and medical imaging to analyze the injuries and compare them with historical autopsy results.

The researchers fired various projectiles into ballistic models of skulls to replicate the injuries Charles sustained. The study focused on identifying the projectile type and its potential origin.

The findings indicated that the fatal projectile was likely not a standard lead musket ball, as the resulting damage did not match the wound on Charles' skull. It also ruled out the button hypothesis, suggesting the projectile was larger than previously thought.

Ultimately, the study concluded that Charles XII was likely killed by an iron grapeshot, with a diameter exceeding 20 millimeters. The speed at which it struck him correspond